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91�������לThere was no way we could not collaborate,91�������ם says of the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, referring to Senior Scientist Jennifer Morgan of the Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL).

When the two first met in 2018, Milovanovic was exploring how condensates -- liquid-like droplets that spontaneously form inside cells -- behave in the nervous system, especially at the synapse, the important contact point where two nerve cells communicate. Morgan, meanwhile, was studying how the synapse malfunctions in devastating diseases such as Parkinson91�������יs and Lewy body dementia.

91�������לWe clicked very well, very quickly,91�������ם says Milovanovic. 91�������לThe secret of our success is our complementarity. We are interested in the same questions, but we take different approaches.91�������ם

�Ѿ����DZ����ԴDZ�����91�������יs studies were in vitro (in glass) 91�������ד in artificial synapses built in a lab dish. Morgan91�������יs were in vivo (in a living organism) 91�������ד in the sea lamprey, which boasts giant synapses in some of its neurons.

�Ѿ����DZ����ԴDZ�����91�������יs in vitro approach 91�������לis very powerful to study how condensates form 91�������ד the so-called liquid-liquid phase transitions,91�������ם he says. To translate this understanding to a living nervous system, 91�������לthe sea lamprey synapse is absolutely second to none, in terms of its size and the imaging approaches you can use for visualizing its substructures,91�������ם he says.

91�������לIt91�������יs like cosmic forces brought us together,91�������ם says Morgan, who first invited Milovanovic in 2018 to give a seminar in the MBL's Eugene Bell Center, which she directs.

Of course, it helps that the MBL is Grand Central for the study of condensates. , condensates are now known to form in all cells of the body and to regulate many critical cellular processes. They91�������יve also been implicated in the development of many serious diseases, including neurodegenerative disease.

The MBL 91�������לMetaverse91�������ם

The two scientists joined forces in January 2020 and have interacted ever since, with Milovanovic spending three full summers collaborating in residence in Morgan91�������יs lab as a Whitman Fellow.

91�������לVery importantly, our team members also collaborate,91�������ם Milovanovic says. 91�������לAll my lab members have now visited MBL as part of the Whitman program. So, beyond our shared scientific interests is community building, which is very important to me. We have a sort of big lab, like a merger of two labs.91�������ם

Good news travels fast, and the Morgan-Milovanovic collaboration has now reached into nearly all corners of the MBL campus, including what he calls the Whitman 91�������לmetaverse.91�������ם

91�������לA really important cluster of people in the Whitman Center is studying condensates,91�������ם he says. They also interact with the MBL Physiology course co-directors, both world leaders in condensate biology: Cliff Brangwynne of Princeton University, who first observed condensates form in worm embryos during the 2008 MBL Physiology course and Amy Gladfelter of Duke University, . Resident MBL scientists also contribute to their extensive collaboration.

91�������לIt91�������יs a very dynamic and diverse ecosystem of people,91�������ם Milovanovic says.

How Does All This Hold Together?

As Brangwynne and others first observed at MBL, cells spontaneously form condensates, or liquid-like droplets that concentrate some of the cell91�������יs molecules in a membrane-free compartment. Condensates form by a phase separation process, similar to oil separating from water.

The Morgan-Milovanovic collaboration focuses on how condensates organize synaptic function, both in health and in disease. One key process is the cycle in which synaptic vesicles -- small, membrane-bound sacs that store neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of nerve cell communication -- release their contents and then are recycled again, for neurotransmission to continue.

The synapse contains thousands of synaptic vesicles that are 91�������לstuck together like a package, but with no delimiting membrane, no scaffolding holding it all together. And it has been a puzzling question, what keeps the vesicles clustered together in such a dynamic form? Why don91�������יt they just disperse away and equalize?91�������ם Milovanovic says. 91�������לAnd here, the principles of phase separation are helping us understand why.91�������ם

These big clusters of synaptic vesicles 91�������ד which we now know represent condensates -- are found dotted along the surface of the axon, the long, thin extension of the nerve cell. So how are these condensates, which have no membrane, interacting with the membrane of the axon? That91�������יs a key question that the two are pursuing. And it relates to Morgan91�������יs work in synaptic dysfunction in neurodegenerative disease.

Toward a Treatment for Parkinson91�������יs Disease

Morgan studies a protein called alpha-synuclein, which builds up abnormally in the brains of patients with Parkinson91�������יs disease.

91�������לIf you have too much alpha-synuclein at the synapse, it gets extra sticky and the synaptic vesicles can91�������יt move around properly,91�������ם Morgan says.

91�������לSo, one idea for developing a strategy to treat Parkinson91�������יs disease is to titrate the synuclein off the axonal membrane,91�������ם she says. 91�������לYou don91�������יt want to remove it, because you need it for normal function. But if there is too much and it91�������יs sticking onto the membranes and not allowing proper phase separation of the vesicle clusters, you might want to tweak it by titrating a little bit off, using rationally designed synuclein inhibitors.91�������ם

Morgan is collaborating with a few labs and companies to explore this idea, based on the principles of membrane binding.

91�������לWe are using different models to test whether these inhibitor drugs could improve the situation, whether it91�������יs looking at neuronal death in a mammalian Parkinson91�������יs disease model or looking at synaptic vesicle correction at the lamprey synapse,91�������ם Morgan says. 91�������לThat kind of preclinical work with synuclein inhibitors is being done around the world right now.91�������ם